Introduction
Feminism is the belief in the social, economic, and political equality of all genders.
This feature covers some of the history and individual movements within feminism. Scroll down to learn more about the waves of feminism and several different philosophical movements.
Image: John Olson, The LIFE Picture Collection, via Getty Images
Next Steps
As with many of these national commemorations, one month is never enough to fully honor and celebrate the history and culture of marginalized communities, let alone heal the legacies (and ongoing reality) of harm and systemic oppression they've experienced. We recognize that resisting and rejecting misogyny and cisheteropatriarchy cannot be manifested simply through resource lists and guides, however important and well-intentioned, and that justice and liberation for women, expansively defined, and all who challenge and live outside of binary gender is the work of generations. We are, nevertheless, committed to doing what we can to work towards a different, more equitable and caring future.
If you'd like to engage more deeply with Women's History Month, units across the Libraries have created a number of interrelated resources and features to provide more holistic coverage of this commemoration. You'll find those, below:
- Feminist Media Studies (Media Studies)
- The Sounds of Women's History Month (Media Studies)
- Transfeminine Worlds: Works by Trans Women (Gender Studies)
- Spotlight on Sex Work (Gender Studies)
- In Memoriam: bell hooks (Philosophy)
- Spotlight on Victorian Women Writers Project (English & American Literature)
- Women-led Architecture Firms (Art, Art History, & Architecture)
- Art & Gender (Gender Studies + Art, Art History, & Architecture)
- Women of Ukraine (Area Studies)
- Women's History Month Streaming and DVD Resources (Media Services)
- Primary Sources on Women in University Collections (Archives & Special Collections)
- Youth Materials on Women's History and Women’s Lives (Education Library)
Online Readings
- "Four Waves of Feminism" (Martha Rampton, Pacific Magazine)
- "Feminist Philosophy" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
- "Transnational Women's Movements" (Leila J. Rupp, European History Online)
- "The Waves of Feminism, and Why People Keep Fighting Over Them, Explained" (Constance Grady, Vox)
Books
The Routledge Companion to Feminist Philosophy by ISBN: 9781317635314Publication Date: 2017-09-19The Routledge Companion to Feminist Philosophy is an outstanding guide and reference source to the key topics, subjects, thinkers, and debates in feminist philosophy. Fifty-six chapters, written by an international team of contributors specifically for the Companion, are organized into five sections: (1) Engaging the Past; (2) Mind, Body, and World; (3) Knowledge, Language, and Science; (4) Intersections; (5) Ethics, Politics, and Aesthetics. The volume provides a mutually enriching representation of the several philosophical traditions that contribute to feminist philosophy. It also foregrounds issues of global concern and scope; shows how feminist theory meshes with rich theoretical approaches that start from transgender identities, race and ethnicity, sexuality, disabilities, and other axes of identity and oppression; and highlights the interdisciplinarity of feminist philosophy and the ways that it both critiques and contributes to the whole range of subfields within philosophy.
Feminist Theory by ISBN: 1405116609Publication Date: 2005-01-14Feminist Theory: A Philosophical Anthology addresses seven philosophically significant questions regarding feminism, its central concepts of sex and gender, and the project of centering women's experience. Topics include the nature of sexist oppression, the sex/gender distinction, how gender-based norms influence conceptions of rationality, knowledge, and scientific objectivity, feminist ethics, feminst perspectives on self and autonomy, whether there exist distinct feminine moral perspectives, and what would comprise true liberation. Features an introductory overview illustrating the development of feminism as a philosophical movement Contains both classic and contemporary sources of feminist thought, including selections by Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, Simone de Beauvior, Kate Millett, bell hooks, Marilyn Frye, Martha Nussbaum, Louise Antony, Sally Haslanger, Helen Longino, Marilyn Friedman, Catharine MacKinnon, and Drucilla Cornell.
We Should All Be Feminists by ISBN: 9781101911761Publication Date: 2015-02-03In this personal, eloquently-argued essay, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie offers readers a unique definition of feminism for the twenty-first century, one rooted in inclusion and awareness. Drawing extensively on her own experiences and her deep understanding of the often masked realities of sexual politics, here is one remarkable author's exploration of what it means to be a woman now--and an of-the-moment rallying cry for why we should all be feminists.
Feminism by ISBN: 0394471911Publication Date: 1972-01-01This essential volume brings together more than forty of the most important historical writings on feminism, covering 150 years of the struggle for women’s freedom, from the American Revolution to the first decades of the twentieth century.
Inessential Woman by ISBN: 080706744XPublication Date: 1988-08-01Inessential Woman is an eloquent argument against white, middle-class bias in feminist theory. It warns against trying to separate feminist thinking and politics from issues of race and class, and challenges the assumption of homogeneity that underlies much of feminist thought.
The Second Sex by ISBN: 9780307265562Publication Date: 2010-04-13Simone de Beauvoir's masterpiece weaves together history, philosophy, economics, biology, and a host of other disciplines to analyze the Western notion of "woman" and to explore the power of sexuality.
Women Philosophers from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment: new studies by ISBN: 9780367758646Publication Date: 2021-05-19This collection of essays presents new work on women’s contribution to philosophy between the Renaissance and the mid-eighteenth century. They bring a new perspective to the history of philosophy, by highlighting women’s contributions to philosophy and testifying to the rich history of women’s thought in this period. By showing that women were active in many branches of philosophy (metaphysics, science, political philosophy cosmology, ontology, epistemology) the book testifies to the rich history of women’s thought across Europe in this period. The scope of the collection is international, both in terms of the philosophers represented and the contributors themselves from Britain and North America, but also from continental Europe and from as far afield as Australia and Brazil. The philosophers discussed here include both figures who have recently come to be better known (Elisabeth of Bohemia, Anne Conway, Mary Astell, Catharine Trotter Cockburn, Emilie du Châtelet), and less familiar figures (Moderata Fonte, Lucrezia Marinella Arcangela Tarabotti, Tullia d’Aragona, Madame Deshoulières, Madame de Sablé, Angélique de Saint-Jean Arnauld d’Andilly, Oliva Sabuco, Susanna Newcome). The chapters in this book were originally published as a special issue of the British Journal for the History of Philosophy.
Feminist Philosophy: An Introduction by ISBN: 9781138215955Publication Date: 2021-06-01Feminist Philosophy: An Introduction provides a comprehensive coverage of the core elements of feminist philosophy in the analytical tradition. Part 1 examines the feminist issues and practical problems that confront us as ordinary people. Part 2 examines the recent and historical arguments surrounding the subject area, looking into the theoretical frameworks we use to discuss these issues and applying them to everyday life. With contemporary and lively debates throughout, Elinor Mason provides a rigorous and yet accessible overview of a rich array of topics including: feminism in a global context, work and care, reproductive rights, sex work, sexual violence and harassment, sexism, oppression and misogyny, intersectionality, objectification, consent, ideology, false consciousness, and adaptive preferences. An outstanding introduction which will equip the reader with a thorough knowledge of the fundamentals of feminism, Feminist Philosophy is essential reading for those approaching the subject for the first time.
Bad Feminist by ISBN: 9780062282712Publication Date: 2014-08-05A collection of essays spanning politics, criticism, and feminism from one of the most-watched cultural observers of her generation. In these funny and insightful essays, Gay takes us through the journey of her evolution as a woman (Sweet Valley High) of color (The Help) while also taking readers on a ride through culture of the last few years (Girls, Django in Chains) and commenting on the state of feminism today (abortion, Chris Brown). The portrait that emerges is not only one of an incredibly insightful woman continually growing to understand herself and our society, but also one of our culture. Bad Feminist is a sharp, funny, and spot-on look at the ways in which the culture we consume becomes who we are, and an inspiring call-to-arms of all the ways we still need to do better, coming from one of our most interesting and important cultural critics.
The Feminist Philosophy Reader by ISBN: 9780073407395Publication Date: 2007-08-24The most comprehensive anthology of feminist philosophy available, this first edition reader brings together over 55 of the most brilliant, influential, and time-tested works to have been published in the field of feminist philosophy. Featuring perspectives from across the philosophical spectrum, and from an array of different cultural vantage points, it displays the incredible range, diversity, and depth of feminist writing on fundamental issues, from the early second wave to the present.
Discovering Feminist Philosophy: knowledge, ethics, politics by ISBN: 0585483019Publication Date: 2003-01-01Many people believe that gender equality has been achieved. In such a world, why dwell on the dualism between the sexes? Why separate, and therefore marginalize, women's scholarship from scholarship as a whole? In short, why feminist philosophy? Discovering Feminist Philosophy provides an accessible introduction to the central issues in feminist philosophy. At the same time, it answers current objections to feminism, arguing that in today's world it is as compelling as ever to probe the impact of the dualism of the sexes. Therefore, feminist perspectives make a vital contribution to the present and future of philosophy. Author Robin May Schott also contributes an original perspective on feminist ethics, based on her work on war and rape. This unique book is equal parts survey, viewpoint, and scholarship--ideal for anyone seeking to understand the current and future role of feminist philosophy.
A Companion to Feminist Philosophy by ISBN: 9780631220671Publication Date: 2000-02-03Including over 50 newly-commissioned survey articles, this outstanding volume represents the first truly comprehensive guide to feminist philosophy.
The a to Z of Feminist Philosophy by ISBN: 9780810868397Publication Date: 2009-07-23Having only emerged in the past few decades, Feminist Philosophy is rapidly developing its own thrust in areas of particular importance to feminism--and women more generally--while also reevaluating and reshaping most other fields of philosophy, from ethics to logic and Marxism to environmentalism. It draws not only on feminist philosophers but criticizes, approves, or appropriates the work of the leading philosophers of all times. The introduction to this reference work provides a useful overview of the subject area and the chronology runs the gamut from Ancient Greek philosophers to contemporary feminist ones. The cross-referenced dictionary entries cover both the central figures and ideas from the historical tradition of philosophy, as well as ideas and theories from contemporary feminist philosophy, such as epistemology (the philosophy of science) and topics that have been introduced by the feminist movement itself, like abortion and sexuality. In addition to including entries on Aristotle, Plato, Descartes, Kant, Wollstonecraft, Beauvoir, and Daly, relevant aspects of other fields of philosophy, the major concepts, and prevailing interpretations and conjectures are also covered. A comprehensive bibliography allows for further reading.
The Blackwell Guide to Feminist Philosophy by ISBN: 9780631224273Publication Date: 2006-11-10The Blackwell Guide to Feminist Philosophy is a definitive introduction to the field, consisting of 15 newly-contributed essays that apply philosophical methods and approaches to feminist concerns. Offers a key view of the project of centering women's experience. Includes topics such as feminism and pragmatism, lesbian philosophy, feminist epistemology, and women in the history of philosophy.
The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Philosophy by ISBN: 9780190628925Publication Date: 2021-05-21This exciting new Handbook offers a comprehensive overview of the contemporary state of the field in feminist philosophy. The editors' introduction and forty-five essays cover feminist critical engagements with philosophy and adjacent scholarly fields, as well as feminist approaches to current debates and crises across the world. Authors cover topics ranging from the ways in which feminist philosophy attends to other systems of oppression, and the gendered, racialized, and classed assumptions embedded in philosophical concepts, to feminist perspectives on prominent subfields of philosophy. The first section contains chapters that explore feminist philosophical engagement with mainstream and marginalized histories and traditions, while the second section parses feminist philosophy's contributions to numerous philosophical subfields, for example metaphysics and bioethics. A third section explores what feminist philosophy can illuminate about crucial moral and political issues of identity, gender, the body, autonomy, prisons, among numerous others. The Handbook concludes with the field's engagement with other theories and movements, including trans studies, queer theory, critical race, theory, postcolonial theory, and decolonial theory. The volume provides a rigorous but accessible resource for students and scholars who are interested in feminist philosophy, and how feminist philosophers situate their work in relation to the philosophical mainstream and other disciplines. Above all it aims to showcase the rich diversity of subject matter, approach, and method among feminist philosophers.
Feminist Perspectives in Philosophy by ISBN: 0253204615Publication Date: 1988-06-22The essays in this book introduce to American readers the work of a group of British feminist philosophers, representing both the Continental and the analytic traditions, who argue that philosophy is in urgent need of a feminist perspective.
Online Resources
- Women's Liberation Movement Print Culture (Duke University)
- American Women A Gateway to Library of Congress Resources for the Study of Women's History and Culture in the United States (LOC)
- Sisterhood and After Oral history interviews featuring activists of the Women’s Liberation Movement (British Library)
Databases
- Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600-2000
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This database brings together books, images, documents, scholarly essays, commentaries, and bibliographies, documenting the multiplicity of women's activism in public life.
Journals
Hypatia: a journal of feminist philosophy Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy is a forum for cutting-edge work in feminist philosophy. Since its inception in the mid-1980s, Hypatia has been a catalyst for broadening and refining feminist philosophy as well as an invaluable resource for those who teach in this area. Feminist philosophy arises out of diverse traditions and methods within philosophy and is also richly interdisciplinary in orientation.
Signs: women in culture and society Recognized as the leading international journal in women’s and gender studies, Signs is at the forefront of new directions in feminist scholarship. Challenging the boundaries of knowledge concerning women’s and men’s lives in diverse regions of the globe, Signs publishes scholarship that raises new questions and develops innovative approaches to our understanding of the past and present. What makes feminist scholarship published in Signs distinctive is not necessarily the subject of investigation or particular methods of inquiry but the effort to cultivate alternative research practices that further feminist, queer, and antiracist goals of social transformation.Feminist Studies
Founded in 1972, Feminist Studies was the first scholarly journal in women’s studies and remains a flagship publication with a record of breaking new ground in the field. Whether drawing from the complex past or the shifting present, the pieces that appear in Feminist Studies raise social and political questions that intimately and significantly affect women and men around the world. The journal publishes research and criticism that takes into account the intersections of gender with racial identity, sexual orientation, economic means, geographical location, and physical ability. No other scholarly journal also features artistic, creative, and activist output on the same scale: each issue contains multi-page full color art spreads alongside art essays, poetry and fiction, photo essays, and commentaries on newsworthy topics.
differences differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies first appeared in 1989 at the moment of a critical encounter—a head-on collision, one might say—of theories of difference (primarily Continental) and the politics of diversity (primarily American). In the ensuing years, the journal has established a critical forum with an international readership where the problematic of differences is explored in texts ranging from the literary and the visual to the political and social.
Feminist Philosophy Quarterly Feminist Philosophy Quarterly (FPQ) is an online, open access, peer-reviewed journal dedicated to promoting feminist philosophical scholarship. We welcome submissions from all areas and traditions of feminist philosophy, and our goal is to be a platform for philosophical research that engages the problems of our time in the broader world.
Organizations
- Society for Women in Philosophy The Society for Women in Philosophy was created in 1972 to support and promote women in philosophy. Since that time the Society for Women in Philosophy or "SWIP" has expanded to many branches around the world, including in the US, Canada, Ireland, the UK, the Netherlands, Flanders, and Germany.
- Society for Analytical Feminism The Society for Analytical Feminism is an official society of the American Philosophical Association, and was founded at the Central Division APA meetings in 1991. The Society for Analytical Feminism provides a forum where issues concerning analytical feminism may be openly discussed and examined. Its purpose is to promote the study of issues in Feminism by methods broadly construed as analytic, to examine the use of analytic methods as applied to Feminist issues and to provide a means by which those interested in Analytical Feminism may meet and exchange ideas. The Society meets yearly at the Central Division meetings of the APA, and frequently organizes sessions for the Eastern Division and Pacific Division meetings.
- philoSOPHIA philoSOPHIA exists to promote continental feminist scholarly and pedagogical development, and is committed to civic and community engagement. Continental feminist philosophy is construed broadly to include feminist work on major figures and themes from the continental philosophical tradition, as well as feminist work inspired by continental philosophy more generally.
- Minorities and Philosophy MAP’s mission is to address structural injustices in academic philosophy and to remove barriers that impede participation in academic philosophy for members of marginalized groups. Through our international organizing team and graduate student-led network of autonomous chapters around the world, we aim to examine and dismantle mechanisms that prevent students from marginalized groups from participating in academic philosophy, as well as to promote philosophical work done from marginalized perspectives, and help improve working conditions for scholars from marginalized backgrounds.
- International Association of Women Philosophers The International Association of Women Philosophers is a professional association and network that provides a forum for discussion, interaction and cooperation among women engaged in teaching and research in all aspects of philosophy, with a particular emphasis on feminist philosophy. Founded in 1976 in Würzburg (Germany) as “Association of Women Philosophers” (APh), the IAPh has gradually grown into an international organization with members all over the world. Currently the IAPh has more than 380 members from more than 35 different countries.
- Association for Feminist Ethics and Social Theory Feminist Ethics and Social Theory is a professional organization dedicated to promoting feminist ethical perspectives on philosophy, moral and political life, and public policy that centers decolonized, intersectional, and interdisciplinary approaches. Our aim is to further the development and clarification of new understandings of ethical and political concepts and concerns, especially as they arise out of feminist concerns regarding underrepresented and marginalized women — including BIPOC, Third World, disabled, and LGBTQIA — as well as those arising from marginalized identities and marginalized issues. We will interrogate and address the philosophical and practical underpinnings of white privilege and racist violence in its many forms, including in feminist theory and practice.
Critique of the 'Waves' of Feminism
First Wave Feminism
Lasting from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the start of the feminist movement in the United States focused primarily on property rights and women's suffrage. Many feminists felt a connection between their cause and the abolitionist movement.
Key Dates
- 1848 - Seneca Falls Convention
- 1916 - Margaret Sanger opens America's first birth control clinic
- 1920 - 19th Amendment passed, granting women the right to vote
Influential Figures
Readings
- "Declaration of Sentiments and Revolutions" by Elizabeth Cady Stanton (Seneca Falls Convention, 1848)
New Woman Fiction by ISBN: 0312236271Publication Date: 2000-11-16The New Woman was the symbol of the shifting categories of gender and sexuality and epitomized the spirit of the fin de siècle . This informative monograph offers an interdisciplinary approach to the growing field of New Woman studies by exploring the relationship between first-wave feminist literature, the nineteenth-century women's movement and female consumer culture.
Second Wave Feminism
Following a lull in feminist activism during the world wars, the second wave of feminism (1960s-90s) focused on gaining political equality and putting a stop to gender-based discrimination. Women began to seek greater participation in the workforce as well as equal pay. The movement also brought attention to issues of domestic violence and reproductive rights. Feminism was beginning to integrate itself with issues of patriarchy, capitalism, and class.
Key Dates
- 1960 - The Food and Drug Administration approves the birth control pill
- 1963 - The Equal Pay Act is enacted
- 1966 - Founding of NOW (National Organization of Women)
- 1972 - Title IX is passed to protect people from sex discrimination in schools
- 1972 - Helen Reddy's song "I Am Woman" becomes an anthem of the movement
- 1972-79 - The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is approved by the U.S. Congress but fails to receive the required number of state ratifications
- 1973 - Roe v. Wade gives women the right to have an abortion
Influential Figures
Readings
- "The Second Feminist Wave" by Martha Weinman Lear (New York Times, 1968) [Requires IU login to view]
The Feminine Mystique by ISBN: 0393040496Publication Date: 1997-12-01The book that jump-started the modern women's movement, filled with ideas and inspiration as vital to women today as when it first appeared. More than three decades later, the issues raised by Friedan still strike at the core of the challenges women face at home and in the workplace.
Separate Roads to Feminism by ISBN: 0521529727Publication Date: 2003-11-24Examines the emergence of feminist movements from the Civil Rights/Black Liberation movement, the Chicano movement, and the white left in the 1960s and 1970s. The author argues that the 'second wave' was comprised of feminisms: organizationally distinct movements that influenced each other in complex ways.
Videos
- "Prospects of Mankind with Eleanor Roosevelt: What Status for Women?" (1962) (GBH Archives)
Third and Fourth Wave Feminism
In the 1990s, a new wave of feminism emerged that challenged the perceived privileging of straight white women by the second wave movement. The movement also brought to the forefront sex positivity and issues of violence against women. The distinction between the third and fourth waves of feminism is unclear. While some believe we're still in the third wave, others argue that the newest fourth wave, starting in the 2010s, is defined by the fight against rape culture.
Key Dates
- 1991 - The riot grrrl punk subculture begins
- 1991 - Anita Hill accuses Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment
- 1992 - The "Year of the Woman" sees a significant number of women elected to U.S. Senate
- 2017-present - Me Too Movement
- 2017 - Women's March
Influential Figures
Readings
Third Wave Agenda by ISBN: 0816630054Publication Date: 1997-10-01In Third Wave Agenda, feminists born between the years 1964 and 1973 discuss the things that matter now, both in looking back at the accomplishments and failures of the past and in planning for the challenges of the future.
Not My Mother's Sister by ISBN: 9780253217134Publication Date: 2004-09-07Henry asserts that by ignoring diverse older voices, the new generation has oversimplified generational conflict and has underestimated the contributions of earlier feminists to women's rights. They have focused on issues relating to personal identity at the expense of collective political action. She concludes by examining the central role played by feminists of color in the development of third-wave feminism.
The Vagina Monologues by ISBN: 0375505652Publication Date: 2001-01-23In this stunning phenomenon that has swept the nation, Eve Ensler gives us real women's stories of intimacy, vulnerability, and sexual self-discovery. Celebrated as the bible for a new generation of women, The Vagina Monologues has been performed in cities all across America and at hundreds of college campuses. It has inspired a dynamic grassroots movement to stop violence against women.
Gender Trouble by ISBN: 0415900425Publication Date: 1989-11-15Since its publication in 1990, "Gender Trouble" has become one of the key works of contemporary feminist theory, and an essential work for anyone interested in the study of gender, queer theory, or the politics of sexuality in culture. Widely taught, and widely debated, "Gender Trouble" continues to offer a powerful critique of heteronormativity and of the function of gender in the modern world.
Articles
- "Feminism in 'Waves': Useful Metaphor or Not?" (Linda Nicholson, New Politics)
- Laughlin, K. A., Gallagher, J., Cobble, D. S., Boris, E., Nadasen, P., Gilmore, S., & Zarnow, L. (2010). Is It Time to Jump Ship? Historians Rethink the Waves Metaphor. Feminist Formations, 22(1), 76–135.
Feminist Philosophies
Liberal feminism, a term that widely overlaps with "mainstream feminism," is the movement to gain gender equality through political and legal reform. The first and second waves of feminism were mostly led by proponents of this movement. Issues that liberal feminism focuses on include voting rights, equal pay, reproductive rights, and access to education.
Key Dates
- 1920 - 19th Amendment passed, granting women the right to vote
- 1972-79 - The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is approved by the U.S. Congress but fails to receive the required number of state ratifications
Influential Figures
Readings
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by ISBN: 9780300176476Publication Date: 2014-08-26Mary Wollstonecraft's visionary treatise, originally published in 1792, was the first book to present women's rights as an issue of universal human rights.
The Beauty Myth by ISBN: 0385423977Publication Date: 1992-06-20Brilliantly persuasive, this is an exploration of the phenomenon of the violent backlash against feminism that uses images of female beauty as a political weapon against women's advancement.
Socialist feminism considers the interconnectivity of patriarchy, capitalism, and women's oppression. This movement applies Karl Marx's ideology to feminism and argues that class oppression and gender oppression are fundamentally tied together.
Key Dates
- 1972 - The Wages for Housework campaign begins
Influential Figures
Readings
- "Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women's Movement" (Chicago Women's Liberation Union, 1972)
- "Socialist Feminism: What Is It and How Can It Replace Corporate 'Girl Boss' Feminism?" (Sarah Leonard, Teen Vogue)
- "Aren't Socialism and Feminism Sometimes in Conflict?" (Nicole Aschoff,The ABCs of Socialism)
- "Trickle-Down Feminism" (Sarah Jaffe, Dissent Magazine)
Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism by ISBN: 0853454191Publication Date: 1978-03-01The essays in this book integrate the central ideas of radical feminist thought with those pivotal for Marxist or socialist class analysis.
The Problem with Work by ISBN: 9780822350965Publication Date: 2011-09-09In The Problem with Work, Kathi Weeks boldly challenges the presupposition that work, or waged labor, is inherently a social and political good. Taking up Marxist and feminist critiques, Weeks proposes a postwork society that would allow people to be productive and creative rather than relentlessly bound to the employment relation.
Radical feminism is a more militant form of feminism which seeks to dismantle the capitalist patriarchy. Radical feminists argue that we must completely restructure society in order to fulfill feminism's goals.
Emerging as a challenge to radical feminism, transfeminism argues that transgender women deserve to be represented in mainstream feminist movements. Transfeminists use the term "terf" (trans-exclusive radical feminist) to call out and hold accountable radical feminists who only fight for the rights of cisgender women.
Key Dates
- 1969 - Redstockings, a radical feminist group, is founded
Influential Figures
Readings
Radical Feminism by ISBN: 0814715559Publication Date: 2000-02-01The second wave of feminism was one of the most significant political and cultural developments of the 1960s and 1970s. Yet the role radical feminism played within the women's movement remains hotly contested. For some, radical feminism has made a lasting contribution to our understanding of male privilege, and the ways the power imbalance between men and women affects the everyday fabric of women's lives. For others, radical feminism represents a reflexive hostility toward men, sex, and heterosexuality, and thus is best ignored or forgotten. Rather than have the movement be interpreted by others, Radical Feminism permits the original work of radical feminists to speak for itself.
Daring to Be Bad by ISBN: 0816617864Publication Date: 1989-12-01Combines intellectual and social history with collective biography to present the first historical study of the radical feminist movement in America.
Also called anarcha-feminism, this movement believes that women's oppression is bound together with the "involuntary hierarchy" of government. The removal of this hierarchy through anarchy is called the "feminization of society."
Key Dates
- 1896-99 - The anarcha-feminist newpaper La Voz de la Mujer is published in Argentina
- 1936-39 - Mujeres Libres, an anarcha-feminist group in Spain, sought recognition in the Spanish anarchist movement
Influential Figures
- Emma Goldman
- Federica Montseny
- Voltairine de Cleyre
- Maria Lacerda de Moura
- Lucy Parsons
- L. Susan Brown
- He Zhen
Readings
- "Anarchism: The Feminist Connection" (Peggy Kornegger, 1975)
- Anarcho-Feminism: Two Statements (1971) ["Who we are: an Anarcho-Feminist Manifesto" (Chicago Anarcho-Feminists) and "Blood of the Flower: An Anarchist Feminist Statement" (Black Rose Anarcho-Feminists)]
- Quiet Rumours: An Anarcha-Feminist Reader (AK Press, 2012)
Anarchafeminism by ISBN: 9781350095878Publication Date: 2021-11-18How can we be sure the oppressed do not become oppressors in their turn? How can we create a feminism that doesn't turn into yet another tool for oppression? It has become commonplace to argue that, in order to fight the subjugation of women, we have to unpack the ways different forms of oppression intersect with one another: class, race, gender, sexuality, disability, and ecology, to name only a few. By arguing that there is no single factor, or arche, explaining the oppression of women, Chiara Bottici proposes a radical anarchafeminist philosophy inspired by two major claims: that there is something specific to the oppression of women, and that, in order to fight that, we need to untangle all other forms of oppression and the anthropocentrism they inhabit. Anarchism needs feminism to address the continued subordination of all femina, but feminism needs anarchism if it does not want to become the privilege of a few. Anarchafeminism calls for a decolonial and deimperial position and for a renewed awareness of the somatic communism connecting all different life forms on the planet. In this new revolutionary vision, feminism does not mean the liberation of the lucky few, but liberation for all living creatures from both capitalist exploitation and an androcentric politics of domination. Either all or none of us will be free.
Anarchism and other essays by Publication Date: 1917Anarchism and Other Essays is a collection of essays written by Emma Goldman, first published by Mother Earth Publishing Association. The essays outline Goldman's anarchist views on a number of subjects, most notably the oppression of women and perceived shortcomings of first wave feminism, but also prisons, political violence, sexuality, religion, nationalism and art theory. Hippolyte Havel contributed a short biography of Goldman to the anthology. The essays were adapted from lectures Goldman had given on fundraising tours for her journal Mother Earth.
Many Black women felt alienated by second wave feminism. Black feminists argued that sexism, classism, and racism are part of the same hierarchical system (the "imperialist white supremacist capitalist patriarchy"), and that therefore Black women have a unique understanding of oppression.
Key Dates
- 1973 - National Black Feminist Organization (NBFO) is founded
- 1974 - Barbara Smith founds the Combahee River Collective
- 1991 - Anita Hill accuses Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment
- 2013-present - #BlackGirlMagic movement celebrates the accomplishments of Black women
Influential Figures
Readings
- The Combahee River Collective Statement (1977)
- "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color" (Kimberlé Crenshaw, Stanford Law Review, 1991)
Black Feminist Thought by ISBN: 0203900057Publication Date: 2002-06-01In spite of the double burden of racial and gender discrimination, African-American women have developed a rich intellectual tradition that is not widely known. In Black Feminist Thought, Patricia Hill Collins explores the words and ideas of Black feminists.
Ain't I a Woman by ISBN: 9781317588610Publication Date: 2014-12-17A classic work of feminist scholarship, Ain't I a Woman has become a must-read for all those interested in the nature of black womanhood. Examining the impact of sexism on black women during slavery, the devaluation of black womanhood, black male sexism, racism among feminists, and the black woman's involvement with feminism, hooks attempts to move us beyond racist and sexist assumptions. The result is nothing short of groundbreaking, giving this book a critical place on every feminist scholar's bookshelf.
Feminist Theory by ISBN: 0896082229Publication Date: 1984-10-01A book about feminist theory that criticizes the one-dimensional view of women's reality and explores the white-supremacist-capitalist-patriarchy.
How We Get Free by ISBN: 1608468550Publication Date: 2017-12-05The Combahee River Collective, a path-breaking group of radical Black feminists, was one of the most important organizations to develop out of the antiracist and women's liberation movements of the 1960s and 70s. In this collection of essays and interviews edited by activist-scholar Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, founding members of the organization and contemporary activists reflect on the legacy of its contributions to Black feminism and its impact on today's struggles.
Carefree Black Girls by ISBN: 9781250231567Publication Date: 2021-10-19One of Kirkus Review's Best Books About Being Black in America "Powerful... Calling for Black women (in and out of the public eye) to be treated with empathy, Blay's pivotal work will engage all readers, especially fans of Mikki Kendall's Hood Feminism." --Kirkus (Starred) An empowering and celebratory portrait of Black women--from Josephine Baker to Aunt Viv to Cardi B. In 2013, film and culture critic Zeba Blay was one of the first people to coin the viral term #carefreeblackgirls on Twitter. As she says, it was "a way to carve out a space of celebration and freedom for Black women online." In this collection of essays, Carefree Black Girls, Blay expands on this initial idea by delving into the work and lasting achievements of influential Black women in American culture--writers, artists, actresses, dancers, hip-hop stars--whose contributions often come in the face of bigotry, misogyny, and stereotypes. Blay celebrates the strength and fortitude of these Black women, while also examining the many stereotypes and rigid identities that have clung to them. In writing that is both luminous and sharp, expansive and intimate, Blay seeks a path forward to a culture and society in which Black women and their art are appreciated and celebrated.
Emerging in the 1980s, postcolonial feminism moves the focus to nonwhite, nonwestern women and their experiences in the postcolonial world. This movement criticizes the ethnocentrism of mainstream feminism and sees parallels between colonization and women's oppression.
Influential Figures
Readings
- "Feminist Perspectives on Globalization" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
- "Under Western Eyes" Revisited: Feminist Solidarity through Anticapitalist Struggles (Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Signs, 2003)
- "The Master's Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master's House" (Audre Lorde, 1984, printed in Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (2007)
- "Femen's obsession with nudity feeds a racist colonial feminism" (Chitra Nagarajan, The Guardian, 2013)
Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism by ISBN: 0253338735Publication Date: 1991-06-01This book presents provocative analyses of the simultaneous oppressions of race, class, gender, and sexuality, as well as the role that imperialism plays in the productions of knowledge and of persons.
Decentering the Center by ISBN: 0253213843Publication Date: 2000-03-22Essays on multicultural, global, and postcolonial feminist concerns transform mainstream notions of experience, human rights, the origins of philosophic issues, philosophic uses of metaphors of the family, white antiracism, human progress, scientific progress, modernity, the unity of scientific method, the desirability of universal knowledge claims, and other ideas central to philosophy.
Feminism Without Borders: decolonizing theory, practicing solidarity by ISBN: 0822330105Publication Date: 2003-02-28Bringing together classic and new writings of the trailblazing feminist theorist Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminism without Borders addresses some of the most pressing and complex issues facing contemporary feminism. Forging vital links between daily life and collective action and between theory and pedagogy, Mohanty has been at the vanguard of Third World and international feminist thought and activism for nearly two decades. This collection highlights the concerns running throughout her pioneering work: the politics of difference and solidarity, decolonizing and democratizing feminist practice, the crossing of borders, and the relation of feminist knowledge and scholarship to organizing and social movements. Mohanty offers here a sustained critique of globalization and urges a reorientation of transnational feminist practice toward anticapitalist struggles. Feminism without Borders opens with Mohanty's influential critique of western feminism ("Under Western Eyes") and closes with a reconsideration of that piece based on her latest thinking regarding the ways that gender matters in the racial, class, and national formations of globalization. In between these essays, Mohanty meditates on the lives of women workers at different ends of the global assembly line (in India, the United Kingdom, and the United States); feminist writing on experience, identity, and community; dominant conceptions of multiculturalism and citizenship; and the corporatization of the North American academy. She considers the evolution of interdisciplinary programs like Women's Studies and Race and Ethnic Studies; pedagogies of accommodation and dissent; and transnational women's movements for grassroots ecological solutions and consumer, health, and reproductive rights. Mohanty's probing and provocative analyses of key concepts in feminist thought--"home," "sisterhood," "experience," "community"--lead the way toward a feminism without borders, a feminism fully engaged with the realities of a transnational world.
Toward a Politics of The (Im)Possible by ISBN: 9781843318552Publication Date: 2010-11-01This book works at the intersection of two related yet different fields. One is the heterogeneous feminist effort to question universal forms of knowing. The second field follows from this conundrum: how does one think of the body when s/he speaks of embodiment? 'Toward a Politics of the (Im)Possible' engages the forefront of contemporary thought on the body, while remaining mindful of the requirements of a feminist approach.
Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World by ISBN: 0862322650Publication Date: 1986-05-01For twenty-five years, Kumari Jayawardenas text has been an essential primer on the history of womens movements in Asia and the Middle Eastfrom Egypt, Turkey and Iran, to India, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Korea and the Philippinesin the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Jayawardena presents a feminism that didnt originate as an ideology of the West to be adopted by women in the Third World, but that instead erupted from the specific needs and struggles of women fighting against colonial power, for education or the vote, for safety, and against poverty and inequality. This readable and well-researched survey highlights the role of women in the national liberation and revolutionary movements of these countries.
Like Black feminism, Indigenous feminism(s) is an intersectional perspective and movement that centers the rights, needs, and experiences of Indigenous people, with a particular focus on human and civil rights for Indigenous women, legal and land-based sovereignty for all tribes and communities, environmental justice, and decolonization.
Key Dates
- 2012 - Idle No More protest movement is founded
- 2016 - Canadian government establishes the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls
Influential Figures
- Myrna Cunningham
- Aileen Moreton-Robinson
- Leanne Betasamosake Simpson
- Haunani-Kay Trask
- Winona LaDuke
- Leslie Marmon Silko
Readings
Indigenous Women and Feminism by ISBN: 9780774818070Publication Date: 2010-11-04Can the specific concerns of Indigenous women be addressed by mainstream feminism? Indigenous Women and Feminism proposes that a dynamic new line of inquiry - Indigenous feminism - is necessary to truly engage with the crucial issues of cultural identity, nationalism, and decolonization particular to Indigenous contexts. Through the lenses of politics, activism, and culture, this wide-ranging collection crosses disciplinary, national, academic, and activist boundaries to explore deeply the unique political and social positions of Indigenous women. A vital and sophisticated discussion, these timely essays will change the way we think about modern feminism and Indigenous women.
Making Space for Indigenous Feminism by ISBN: 9781842779293Publication Date: 2008-02-01The majority of scholarly and activist opinion by and about Indigenous women claims that feminism is irrelevant for them. Yet there is also an articulate, theoretically informed and activist constituency that identifies as feminist. This book is by and about Indigenous feminists, whose work demonstrates a powerful and original intellectual and political contribution demonstrating that feminism has much to offer Indignenous women in their struggles against oppression and for equality. Indigenous feminism is international in its scope: the contributors here are from Canada, the USA, Sapmi (Samiland), and Aotearoa/New Zealand. The chapters include theoretical contributions, stories of political activism, and deeply personal accounts of developing political consciousness as Aboriginal feminists.
Indigenous American Women: decolonization, empowerment, activism by ISBN: 0803282869Publication Date: 2003-04-01Oklahoma Choctaw scholar Devon Abbott Mihesuah offers a frank and absorbing look at the complex, evolving identities of American Indigenous women today, their ongoing struggles against a centuries-old legacy of colonial disempowerment, and how they are seen and portrayed by themselves and others. Mihesuah first examines how American Indigenous women have been perceived and depicted by non-Natives, including scholars, and by themselves. She then illuminates the pervasive impact of colonialism and patriarchal thought on Native women's traditional tribal roles and on their participation in academia. Mihesuah considers how relations between Indigenous women and men across North America continue to be altered by Christianity and Euro-American ideologies. Sexism and violence against Indigenous women has escalated; economic disparities and intratribal factionalism and "culturalism" threaten connections among women and with men; and many women suffer from psychological stress because their economic, religious, political, and social positions are devalued. In the last section, Mihesuah explores how modern American Indigenous women have empowered themselves tribally, nationally, or academically. Additionally, she examines the overlooked role that Native women played in the Red Power movement as well as some key differences between Native women "feminists" and "activists."
Violence Against Indigenous Women: literature, activism, resistance by ISBN: 9781771122399Publication Date: 2017-08-31Violence against Indigenous women in Canada is an ongoing crisis, with roots deep in the nation's colonial history. Despite numerous policies and programs developed to address the issue, Indigenous women continue to be targeted for violence at disproportionate rates. What insights can literature contribute where dominant anti-violence initiatives have failed? Centring the voices of contemporary Indigenous women writers, this book argues for the important role that literature and storytelling can play in response to gendered colonial violence. Indigenous communities have been organizing against violence since newcomers first arrived, but the cases of missing and murdered women have only recently garnered broad public attention. Violence Against Indigenous Women joins the conversation by analyzing the socially interventionist work of Indigenous women poets, playwrights, filmmakers, and fiction-writers. Organized as a series of case studies that pair literary interventions with recent sites of activism and policy-critique, the book puts literature in dialogue with anti-violence debate to illuminate new pathways toward action. With the advent of provincial and national inquiries into missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls, a larger public conversation is now underway. Indigenous women's literature is a critical site of knowledge-making and critique. Violence Against Indigenous Women provides a foundation for reading this literature in the context of Indigenous feminist scholarship and activism and the ongoing intellectual history of Indigenous women's resistance.
Indigenous Feminist Narratives: I/we: wo(men) of an(other) way by ISBN: 9781137531308Publication Date: 2015-04-29This book analyzes the literary representation of Indigenous women in Latin American letters from colonization to the twentieth century, arguing that contemporary theorization of Indigenous feminism deconstructs denigratory imagery and offers a (re)signification, (re)semantization and reinvigoration of what it means to be an Indigenous woman.
Ecofeminism is a social movement and philosophy that looks at the connections between nature and women. As a social movement that centers on the protection of nature, it is a movement led by decolonial and indigenous movements, primarily by women of color activists (Rai, 2022).
Key Dates
- 1973 - In India, in the state of Uttarakhand, women took part in the Chipko movement to protect forests from deforestation
- 1977 - In Kenya, the Green Belt Movement was initiated by environmental and political activist Professor Wangari Maathai
- 1978 - In New York, mother and environmentalist Lois Gibbs led her community in protest after discovering that their entire neighborhood, Love Canal, was built on the site of a toxic dump
- 1980-81 - Women like ecofeminist Ynestra King organized Women's Pentagon Actions
- 1985 - The Akwanese Mother's Milk Project was launched by Katsi Cook
- 1989 - Bernadette Cozart founded the Greening of Harlem Coalition
Influential Figures
- Françoise d'Eaubonne
- Greta Gaard
- Susan Griffin
- Starhawk
- Carolyn Merchant
- Wangari Maathai
- Katsi Cook
- Lois Gibbs
- Bernadette Cozart
- Maria Mies
- Vandana Shiva
Readings
- Feminist Environmental Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
- Ecofeminism: toward global justice and planetary health (Society and Nature)
All We Can Save by ISBN: 0593237064Publication Date: 2020-09-22There is a renaissance blooming in the climate movement - leadership that is more characteristically feminine and more faithfully feminist, rooted in compassion, connection, creativity, and collaboration. While it's clear that women and girls are vital voices and agents of change for this planet, they are too often missing from the proverbial table. More than a problem of bias, it's a dynamic that sets us up for failure. To change everything, we need everyone. All We Can Save illuminates the expertise and insights of dozens of diverse women leading on climate in the United States - scientists, journalists, farmers, lawyers, teachers, activists, innovators, wonks, and designers, across generations, geographies, and race-and aims to advance a more representative, nuanced, and solution-oriented public conversation on the climate crisis. These women offer a spectrum of ideas and insights for how we can rapidly, radically reshape society. Intermixing essays with poetry and art, this book is both a balm and a guide for knowing and holding what has been done to the world, while bolstering our resolve never to give up on one another or our collective future. We must summon truth, courage, and solutions to turn away from the brink and toward life-giving possibility. Curated by two climate leaders, the book is a collection and celebration of visionaries who are leading us on a path toward all we can save.
Ecofeminism by ISBN: 1856491560Publication Date: 1993-09-27This impressive book celebrates the coming together of two well-known critics of Western philosophy and science. From their respective backgrounds in social science and physics, Maria Mies and VAndana Shiva write about the concerns which unite them as women. Theirs is a powerful critique of the emnacipatory ideas of the Enlightenment, which measured civilizationin terms of domination of Nature. They argue that feminism should see linkages between patriarchal opression and the destruction of Nature in the name of profit and progress. Women - in many parts of the world the principal farmers, food-providers, and nurturers of children - are the hardest hit by technological excess and environmental degradation. Through examining issues such as the growth of new reproductive technologies, 'development', indigenous knowledge, globalization, and the concepts of freedom and self-determination, teh authors provide a vision of a different value system. Ecofeminism is after all a 'new term for an ancient wisdom'. Their book is a powerful plea for the rediscovery of such wisdom by feminists and ecologists everywhere.
Critical Ecofeminism by ISBN: 9781498533584Publication Date: 2017-06-16Australian feminist philosopher Val Plumwood coined the term "critical ecofeminism" to "situate humans in ecological terms and non-humans in ethical terms," for "the two tasks are interconnected, and cannot be addressed properly in isolation from each other." Variously using the terms "critical ecological feminism," "critical anti-dualist ecological feminism," and "critical ecofeminism," Plumwood's work developed amid a range of perspectives describing feminist intersections with ecopolitical issues--i.e., toxic production and toxic wastes, indigenous sovereignty, global economic justice, species justice, colonialism and dominant masculinity. Well over a decade before the emergence of posthumanist theory and the new materialisms, Plumwood's critical ecofeminist framework articulates an implicit posthumanism and respect for the animacy of all earthothers, exposing the linkages among diverse forms of oppression, and providing a theoretical basis for further activist coalitions and interdisciplinary scholarship. Had Plumwood lived another ten years, she might have described her work as "Anthropocene Ecofeminism," "Critical Material Ecofeminism," "Posthumanist Anticolonial Ecofeminism"--all of these inflections are present in her work. Here, Critical Ecofeminism advances upon Plumwood's intellectual, activist, and scholarly work by exploring its implications for a range of contemporary perspectives and issues--critical animal studies, plant studies, sustainability studies, environmental justice, climate change and climate justice, masculinities and sexualities. With the insights available through a critical ecofeminism, these diverse eco-justice perspectives become more robust.
Women and Nature by ISBN: 1578050472Publication Date: 2000-01-03In this famously provocative cornerstone of feminist literature, Susan Griffin explores the identification of women with the earth--both as sustenance for humanity and as victim of male rage. Starting from Plato's fateful division of the world into spirit and matter, her analysis of how patriarchal Western philosophy and religion have used language and science to bolster their power over both women and nature is brilliant and persuasive, coming alive in poetic prose. Griffin draws on an astonishing range of sources--from timbering manuals to medical texts to Scripture and classical literature -- in showing how destructive has been the impulse to disembody the human soul, and how the long separated might once more be rejoined. Poet Adrienne Rich calls Woman and Nature "perhaps the most extraordinary nonfiction work to have merged from the matrix of contemporary female consciousness -- a fusion of patriarchal science, ecology, female history and feminism, written by a poet who has created a new form for her vision. ...The book has the impact of a great film or a fresco; yet it is intimately personal, touching to the quick of woman's experience."
Silent Spring by ISBN: 0618249060Publication Date: 2022-02-01First published by Houghton Mifflin in 1962, Silent Spring alerted a large audience to the environmental and human dangers of indiscriminate use of pesticides, spurring revolutionary changes in the laws affecting our air, land, and water; "Silent Spring became a runaway bestseller, with international reverberations . . . [It is] well crafted, fearless and succinct . . . Even if she had not inspired a generation of activists, Carson would prevail as one of the greatest nature writers in American letters" (Peter Matthiessen, for Time's 100 Most Influential People of the Century). This fortieth anniversary edition celebrates Rachel Carson's watershed book with a new introduction by the author and activist Terry Tempest Williams and a new afterword by the acclaimed Rachel Carson biographer Linda Lear, who tells the story of Carson's courageous defense of her truths in the face of ruthless assault from the chemical industry in the year following the publication of Silent Spring and before her untimely death in 1964.
Death of Nature by ISBN: 0062505726Publication Date: 1982-09-01An examination of the Scientific Revolution that shows how the mechanistic world view of modern science has sanctioned the exploitation of nature, unrestrained commercial expansion, and a new socioeconomic order that subordinates women.
Feminism and Ecology by ISBN: 0814756018Publication Date: 1998-02-01In recent years, as environmentalists have examined the link between women's subordination and the degradation of our natural world, the relationship between feminism and ecology has become a crucial one. In Feminism and Ecology, Mary Mellor, tracing ecofeminist activism from the Love Canal demonstrations to socialist ecofeminism, provides a comprehensive introduction to the ecofeminist movement and its history. Mellor examines the connections between feminism and the Green movement, outlining the contributions of major participants while contextualizing them within a wider range of debates. Looking past the shortsighted assertion that women and men stand in equal relation to the natural order, Mellor discusses the association of women with biology and "nature," illustrating how the relationship between women and the environment can help further our understanding of the relationship between humanity and the natural world. Against trends toward radical economic liberalism, global capitalism, and postmodern pluralism, she argues that within the feminist and Green movements is the basis of a new radical movement.
Gyn/Ecology by ISBN: 0807014133Publication Date: 1990-11-12This revised edition includes a New Intergalactic Introduction by the Author. Mary Daly's New Intergalactic Introduction explores her process as a Crafty Pirate on the Journey of Writing Gyn/Ecology and reveals the autobiographical context of this "Thunderbolt of Rage" that she first hurled against the patriarchs in 1979 and no hurls again in the Re-Surging Movement of Radical Feminism in the Be-Dazzling Nineties.
Le féminisme ou la mort by Publication Date: 1974It was not until the 1974 publication of Le Féminisme ou la Mort by French feminist author and civil rights activist Françoise d´Eaubonne (1920-2005) that a term to describe feminist efforts and attitudes towards environmental practices was coined: Ecofeminism. In her book, d´Eaubonne argues that many parallels exist between the patriarchal suppression of women and the suppression of nature, and this suppression results in environmental destruction. Since then, numerous theoretical and practical additions to d´Eaubonne’s argument have been made.
